(b) PassaGES RELATING TO ANAXIMENES IN ARISTOTLE, &c.
Arist. Meteor. Π. 1; 854 a 28. Most of the earlier
students of the heavenly bodies believed that the sun
did not go underneath the earth, but rather around the
earth and this region, and that it disappeared from view
. and produced night, because the earth was so high
toward the north.
Simpl. de Coelo 278 b 45; Schol. Arist. 514a 28. He
regarded the first principle as unlimited, but not
as undefined, for he called it air, thinking that air
had a sufficient adaptability to change.
Simpl. Phys. 82 r 149, 82. Of this one writer alone,
Theophrastos, in his account of the Physicists, uses
the words µάνωσις and πύκνωσις of texture. The
rest, of course, spoke of µανότης and πυκνότης.
Simpl. Phys. 257v. Some say that the universe always
existed, not that it has always been the same,
but rather that it successively changes its character
in certain periods of time; as, for instance, Anaxi- menes and Herakleitos and Diogenes.
Arist. de Coelo ii. 18; 29418. Anaximenes and >
Anaxagoras and Demokritos say that the breadth of the
earth is the reason why it remains where it is.
Arist. Meteor. ii. 7; 865 (a 17),b 6. Anaximenes says
that the earth was wet, and when it dried it broke apart,
and that earthquakes are due to the breaking and falling
of hills; accordingly earthquakes occur in droughts,
and in rainy seasons also; they occur in drought, as has
been said, because the earth dries and breaks apart,
and it also crumbles when it is wet through with waters.
Arist. Metaph. 1.3; 984a5. Anaximenes regarded air as the first principle.
' For a discussion of the above fragment, v. Archiv f. d. Geschichte d. Phil. 1. 315.
Anaximenes 19
Plut. Prim. Frig. vii. 8, p. 947. According to Anaxi-
menes, the early philosopher, we should not neglect
either cold or heat in being but should regard them
as common experiences of matter which are inci-
dent to its changes. He says that the compressed
and the condensed state of matter is cold, while
the rarefied and relaxed (a word he himself uses)
state of it is heat. Whence he says it is not
strange that men breathe hot and cold out of the
mouth ; for the breath is cooled as it is compressed
and. condensed by the lips, but when the mouth is
relaxed, it comes out warm by reason of its rare- faction.
(ο) PassaGES RELATING TO ANAXIMENES IN THE DoxoGRAPHISTS.
Theophrastos; Simpl. Phys. 6r 24, 26; Doz. 476. Anaximenes of Miletos, son of Eurystratos, a companion of Anaximandros, agrees with him that the essential nature of things is one and infinite, but he regards it as not indeterminate but rather determinate, and calls it air; the air differs in rarity and in density as the nature of things is different; when very attenuated it becomes fire, when more condensed wind, and then cloud, and when still more condensed water and earth and stone, and all other things are composed of these; and he regards motion as eternal, and by this changes are produced.!
‘. Hipp. Philos. 7; Dox. 560. Anaximenes, himself a Milesian, son of EKurystratos, said that infinite air is the first principle,’ from which arise the things that have come and are coming into existence, and the things that will be, and gods and divine beings, while other things are pro- duced from these. And the form of air is as follows :— When it is of a very even consistency, it is imperceptible to vision, but it becomes evident as the result of cold or
' Cf. Arist. Phys. i. 4; and de Coelo iii. 5. ΣΥ. Epiph. adv. Haer. iii. 3; Doz. 589.
20 the First Philosophers of Greece
heat or moisture, or when it is moved. It is always in motion; for things would not change as they do unless it were in motion. It has a different appearance when it is made more dense or thinner ; when it is expanded into a thinner state it becomes fire, and again winds are condensed air, and air becomes cloud by compression, and water when it is compressed farther, and earth and finally stones as it is more condensed. So that genera- tion is controlled by the opposites, heat and cold. And the broad earth is supported on air;! similarly the sun and the moon and all the rest of the stars, being fiery bodies,? are supported on the air by their breadth. And stars are made of earth, since exhalations arise from this, and these being attenuated become fire, and of this fire when it is raised to the heaven the stars are con- stituted. There are also bodies of an earthy nature ‘ in the place occupied by the stars, and carried along with them in their motion. He says that the stars do not move under the earth, as others have supposed, but around the earth,® just as a cap is moved about the head. And the sun is hidden not by going underneath the earth, but because it is covered by some of the higher parts of the earth, and because of its greater distance from us. The stars do not give forth heat because they are so far away. Winds are produced when the air that has been attenuated is set in motion; and when it comes together and is yet farther condensed, clouds are produced, and so it changes into water. And hail is formed when the water descending from the clouds is frozen; and snow, when these being yet more filled with moisture ~ become frozen ; ® and lightning, when clouds are separated by violence of the winds ; for when they are separated,
' Aet. iii. 15; Dow. 380. ? Aet.ii. 13; 342; ii.20; 348; ii. 25; 356. 3 Aet. ii. 225 352. 4 Αοῦι ii. 13; 949. ὅ Aet. ii. 16 ; 346. . 5 Aet. iii. 4; 370.
Anaximenes 21
the flash is bright and like fire.' And a rainbow is pro-
duced when the sun’s rays fall on compressed air ;? and
earthquakes are produced when the earth is changed yet
more by heating and cooling.? Such are the opinions
of Anaximenes. And he flourished about the first year
of the fifty-eighth Olympiad.
Plut. Strom. 8; Dox. 579. Anaximenes says that air is the first principle of all things, and that it is infinite in quantity but is defined by its qualities; and all things are generated by a certain condensation or rarefaction of it. Motion also exists from eternity. And by compres- sion of the air the earth was formed, and it is very broad ; accordingly he says that this rests on air; and the sun and the moon and the rest of the stars were formed from earth. He declared that the sun is earth because of its swift motion, and it has the proper amount of heat.
Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 10; Doz. 581. Afterwards
Anaximenes said that air is god,‘ [and that it arose]
and that it is boundless and infinite and always in
motion; just as though air without any form could be
god, when it is very necessary that god should be not
only of some form, but of the most beautiful form ; or as
though everything which comes into being were not
thereby subject to death.
Aet.i. 8; Dox. 278. Anaximenes of Miletos, son of Eu- rystratos, declared that air is the first principle of things, for from this all things arise and into this they are all resolved again. As our soul which is air, he says, holds us together, so wind [1e. breath, πνεῦμα] and air encompass the whole world. He uses these words ‘air’ and ‘wind’ synonymously. He is mistaken in thinking that animals are composed of simple homo-
' Aet. 11.5: 368. 2 Aet. 11. ὅ: 373.
* Cf. il iii. 15 ; 379 imfra and Arist. Meteor. ii. 7, supra. 4 Aet. i. 7; 302.
22 the First Philosophers of Greece
geneous air and wind; for it is impossible that one
first principle should constitute the substance of things,
but an active cause is also necessary ; just as silver
alone is not enough to become coin, but there is need of
an active cause, 6.6. a coi-maker; [so there is need of
copper and wood and other substances].
Aet. 11. 1; 827. Anaximenes et al.: Infinite worlds
exist in the infinite in every cycle. 4; 831. The world
is perishable. 11; 839. The sky is the revolving vault
most distant from the earth. 14; 344. The stars
are fixed like nailheads in the crystalline (vault). 19;
847. The stars shine for none of these reasons, but
solely by the light of the sun. 22; 962. The sun is
broad [like a leaf]. 28; 852. The stars revolve, being
pushed by condensed resisting air.
Aet. 11.10; 877. The form of the earth is like a
table. 15; 879. The dryness of the air, due to
drought, and its wetness, due to rainstorms, are the
causes of earthquakes.
Aet. iv. 8; 887. Anaximenes et al.: The soul is like air in its nature.
IV. HERAKLEITOS.
Accorpine to Apollodoros, Herakleitos son of Blyson flourished in the sixty-ninth Olympiad (504-501 Ε.ο.). An attempt to fix the date from his reference to the expul- sion from Ephesos of his friend Hermodoros (Frag. 114) has resulted in a somewhat later date, though it is by no means impossible that Hermodoros was expelled during Persian rule in the city. Beyond the fact that Herakleitos lived in Ephesos we know nothing of his life; of the many stories related about him most can be proved false, and there is no reason for crediting the remainder His philosophic position is clear, however, since he refers to Pythagoras and Xenophanes (Fr. 16-17), and Parmenides (Vss. 46 sqq.) seems to refer to him. His book is said to have been divided into three parts :— (1) Concerning the All; (2) Political; (8) Theological Even in antiquity he was surnamed the ‘dark’ or the ‘ obscure.’
Literature: Schleiermacher, Op. Phil. ii. 1-146; Ber-
nays, Ges. Abhandl. i.; Lassalle, Die Philosophie
Herakleitos des dunklen, Berl. 1858; P. Schuster,
‘ Heraklit von Ephesos,’ in Act. soc. phil. Lips.
1878, 111 ; Teichmiiller, Newe Studien zur Gesch.
d. Begriffe, Gotha 1876-1878; Bywater, Heracl.
Eph. Reliquiae, Oxford 1877; Gomperz, ‘Zu
Herakl. Lehre,’ Sztz. d. Wren. Ak. 1886, p. 977 ff. ;
Patin, Herakl. Einhettslehre, Leipzig 1886, ‘ Quel-
lenstudien zu Herakht,’in Festschrifé f. L. Urlichs,
1880, Herakleitische Beispiele, Progr. Neuburg,
1892-1898 ; EK. Pfleiderer, Die Philosophie des He-
raklits wm Lichte der Mysterienidee, Berlin 1886 ;
also Rhein. Mus. xlii. 158 ff.; JBB. f. protest.
Theol. xiv.177 ff.; E. Wambier, Studia Heraclitea,
Diss. Berlin 1891.
24 the First Philosophers of Greece
(a) FRaGMENTS oF HERAKLEITOS.
2. τοῦ δὲ λόγου τοῦδ' ἐόντον αἰεὶ ἀξύνετοι γίνονται
ἄνθρωποι καὶ πρόὀσθεν ἢ ἀκοῦσαι καὶ ἀκούσαντεν τὸ
πρῶτον. «γινοµένων γὰρ πάντων κατὰ τὸν λόγον τόνδε
ἀπείροισι ἑοίκασι πειρώμενοι Kal ἐπέων καὶ ἔργων τοιου-
" τέων ὁκοίων ἐγὼ διηγεῦμαι, διαιρέων ἕκαστον κατὰ φύσιν
καὶ φράζων ὅκως ἔχει. τοὺς δὲ ἄλλους ἀνθρώπους λαν-
θάνει ὁκόσα ἐγερθέντες ποιέουσι, ὅκωσπερ ὁκόσα εὔδοντες
ἐπιλανθάνονται.
4. κακοὶ μάρτυρες ἀνθρώποισι ὀφθαλμοὶ καὶ ora, βαρβάρους ψυχὰς ἐχόντων. |
Sources and Critical Notes.
1. Hipp. Ref. haer. ix. 9 (of. Philo, Leg. all. iii. 3, p. 88). λόγου Bernays, δόγµατος MS., Bgk.: εἶναι Miller, εἰδέναι MS., Bern. Bgk.
2. Sext. Emp. adv. math. vii. 132; (except last clause) Hipp. Ref. haer. ix.9. In part: Arist. Rhet. iii. 5, 1407 b 14; Clem. Al. Strom. v. 14, p. 716 (=Euseb. P. E. xiii. 13, p. 680) ; Amelius in Euseb. P. E. xi. 19, p. 540, (and elsewhere). Cf. Philo, Quis rer. div. haer. 48, p. 505 ; Joh. Sic. in Walz, Rhett. Gr. vi. p. 95.
τοῦ δέοντος vulg. except Sext. Emp. : ξετοὶ (for ἀξύνετοι) MS. Hipp. : ἀπείροισι Bern., ἄπειροι εἰσὶν Hipp., ἄπειροι Sext. Emp.
3. Clem. Al. Strom. v. 14, p. 718 (Euseb. P. E. xiii. 18, p. 681); Theod. Ther. i. 13, 49: ἀπιέναι MS. Clem. 4. Sext. Emp. adv. math. viii. 126; Stob. Flor. iv. 56; of. Diog. Laer. ix. 7. 5. Clem. Al. Strom. ii. 2, p. 432; ef. M. Antoninus, iv. 46. ὁκόσοις Gataker, ὁκόσοι vulg.: ἐγκυρέουσι Schuster, ἐγκυρσεύουσιν vulg. ae 6. Clem. Al. Strom. ii. 5, p. 449.
Herakleitos 25
1. Not on my authority, but on that of truth, it is wise for you to accept the fact that all things are one.
Hippolytos quotes this with Fragment 45, to show that
Herakleitos taught the underlying unity of all
things. On the word λόγος (meaning both discourse
and the truth the discourse contains), v. Zeller, i. 680, n. 1.